Addressing gender-based violence during conflict can be a controversial undertaking because, at its core, it requires challenging the foundational social, political, and economic systems that have led to the subordination of women throughout the world. Despite the ongoing development of international law and policy protecting women from violence during armed conflict, the problem continues. National governments and nongovernmental organizations approach intervention from many different angles.
Greater Protection of Civilian Populations The United Nations Peacekeeping forces are often the first or only line of defense for civilian populations during armed conflict. Increasingly, United Nations Peacekeeping mandates include specific references to the protection of women and girls. For example, in the Democratic Republic of Congo the UN declares that “Emphasizing that the protection of civilians must be given priority, the Council authorized MONUSCO to use all necessary means to carry out its protection mandate, including the effective protection of civilians, humanitarian personnel and human rights defenders under imminent threat of physical violence, as well as the protection of United Nations personnel, facilities, installations and equipment. The Mission would also support Government efforts to fight impunity and ensure the protection of civilians from violations of international human rights and humanitarian law, including all forms of sexual and gender-based violence.” From: “MONUSCO Mandate,” United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, www.monuc.unmissions.org. The UN’s mandate in the Sudan includes working “To contribute towards international efforts to protect and promote human rights in Sudan, as well as to co-ordinate international efforts towards the protection of civilians, with particular attention to vulnerable groups including internally displaced persons, returning refugees, and women and children, within UNMIS's capabilities and in close cooperation with other United Nations agencies, related organizations, and non-governmental organizations.” From: “UNMIS Mandate," United Nations Mission in the Sudan, www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmis/. And in Afghanistan, the UN Mission emphasizes that “The mandate also recognized the critical importance of monitoring and coordination of efforts to protect civilians and support wider human rights, in particular the rights of women and children.” From: “Mandate,” United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, http://unama.unmissions.org/.
National governments have also created initiatives to protect women and girls from increasing gender-based violence during armed conflict. In March of 2009, the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) published its executive summary of the Comprehensive Strategy on Combating Sexual Violence in the DRC. The Comprehensive Strategy was developed by the MONUSCO Office of the Senior Adviser and Coordinator for Sexual Violence in coordination with local and international NGO’s and government Ministries of Justice, Defense, Interior, Gender and Health. The Comprehensive Strategy, also called the National Strategy, was developed to provide a coordinated response to GBV and consists of four major strategic components: Combating Impunity for Perpetrators, Protection and Prevention of Sexual Violence, Security Sector Reform and Sexual Violence, and Multi-Sectoral Response for Survivors of Sexual Violence. Within the goal of Protection and Prevention, the DRC national strategy recommends producing a risk assessment, increasing collaboration between government agencies, and developing community protection measures. From: “Comprehensive Strategy on Combating Sexual Violence in DRC: Executive Summary,” Office of the Senior Sexual Violence Advisor and Coordinator, United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 18 March 2009, www.monuc.unmissions.org.
Prosecution of Offenders Impunity for perpetrators of violence against women and girls during armed conflict is often blamed for the increasing rates of such violence. Yet, it could be said that The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda’s recognition of rape as a war crime and as a crime against humanity, respectively, have spurred the growth of an international movement for ending impunity for perpetrators of gender-based violence during armed conflict. Additionally, the International Criminal Court is currently trying political leaders from The Central Republic of Africa, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Sudan, and Kenya charged with, rape as a war crime and a crime against humanity, among other atrocities. From: The International Criminal Court.
New national legislation and efforts to increase prosecution have also been initiated in many regions. In Kosovo, the government enacted a series of legislation against violence against women after the end of the war. In 2001, the “Regulation on the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons in Kosovo” was enacted which made human trafficking illegal and also mandated government services for victims of trafficking. Domestic violence legislation was passed in 2003 and in 2004 including the “Anti-Discrimination Law” and the Gender Equality Law were passed which promoted equality between men and women. International and local NGO’s have organized efforts to train prosecutors, police, and others within the legal system on these new laws to support their full use. From: “Gender-Based Violence in Kosovo – A Case Study,” UN Population Fund, 2005, pages 11-12, http://www.unfpa.org/public/. Likewise, in Liberia, legislation against rape was enacted in 2005 with a maximum penalty of life in prison. The United Nations has also worked with Liberian national police to establish a special unit, the Women and Children Investigation Section, to investigate crimes against women and children. And in 2008, a special court was established within the Liberian judicial system to prosecute crimes of gender-based violence. From: “Liberia – Special Court for Sexual Violence Underway,” IRIN News, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 21 March 2008, www.irinnews.org; and “A House with Two Rooms: Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Liberia Diaspora Project,” The Advocates for Human Rights, 2009, www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org.
Legislation and prosecution can be much more difficult to initiate when violent conflict continues and the rule of law is all but ignored. However, in 2006, new legislation came into effect in the Democratic Republic of Congo that expanded the definition of rape to include penetration of any kind and assaults on both sexes. It also contained sanctions against acts such as mutilation, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, and forced marriage. The law also contains provisions to streamline judicial procedures and to increase sanctions for convicted perpetrators. From: Rodriguez, Claudia, “Sexual violence in South Kivu, Congo,” Relief Web, www.reliefweb.int. The national Comprehensive Strategy for the DRC contains a strategic component of Combating Impunity for Perpetrators, within which four objectives were outlined: to strengthen the capacities of the judicial institutions and develop a criminal justice policy focused on sexual violence, to improve access to justice for victims, to guarantee the effective application of the 2006 Law on Sexual Violence, and to ensure reparation for victims. Key action steps to address these objectives include creating specialized Sexual Violence Police Units, instituting standardized reporting forms, providing transportation assistance, legal advice, and financial relief for victims, and focusing attention on cases of high ranking military and civilian officials. From: “Comprehensive Strategy on Combating Sexual Violence in DRC: Executive Summary,” Office of the Senior Sexual Violence Advisor and Coordinator, United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 18 March 2009, www.monuc.unmissions.org.
Survivor Services The immediate needs of survivors of gender-based violence usually include attention to serious physical and mental health concerns. The sheer brutality of the sexual violence many women experience produces obvious physical health concerns. Assaults may include forced vaginal, oral, or anal sex; rape by several men (‘gang rape’); vaginal penetration with guns, knives, or other foreign objects; mutilation of genitals; and beating, cutting, or penetration of pregnant women in order to cause miscarriage. From: “Broken Bodies Broken Dreams – Violence against Women Exposed,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and Integrated Regional Information Networks, 2005. Many of the larger international NGOs often take on the burden of responding to health needs of civilians during times of armed conflict. It is organizations such as the United Nations, The International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Rescue Committee, the American Refugee Committee, and Doctors Without Borders that are able to wield the resources necessary for the transportation of medical supplies and the continued operation of services in places where local clinics and hospitals have lost capacity due to violence, displacement, or simply due to over-crowding.
Psychological services are also essential as the desperation of continued violence compounds the mental health impact of gender-based violence during armed conflict. For example, the UNFPA reported that “In Kosovo, dealing with the psychosocial suffering that the conflict caused was more challenging than dealing with ordinary health problems. The psychological traumatization of women left them completely devastated. The importance of reaching out and assisting in recovery and rehabilitation cannot be overemphasized.” To meet this need in Kosovo, the national government established Community Mental Health Centers and initiated special training programs for medical personnel. Also, several local nonprofit organizations, including the Mother Teresa Association and the Center for Protection of Women and Children, formed health care centers that focused on both gynecological and mental health needs of women exposed to GVB during the war. From: “Gender-Based Violence in Kosovo – A Case Study,” UN Population Fund, 2005, pages 13, 15-16, http://www.unfpa.org/public.
Women’s Rights and Leadership While national legal protections and survivor services are absolutely necessary, it is clear that these alone are not sufficient to address violence against women in conflict. The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states that:
“Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men.” From: Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.
The response to violence against women during armed conflict must also address the underlying gender inequalities that are present worldwide during times of peace and that make gender-based atrocities possible, even probable, during conflict.
Recently, there have been some NGO initiatives that are finding creative and tangible ways to address social expectations and values surrounding women, gender roles, and gender relations. For example, the American Refugee Committee (ARC) sponsors gender-based violence prevention programs in Liberia, Northern Uganda, Pakistan, Rwanda, Sudan, and Thailand. ARC programming includes not only survivor services such as health care, counseling, and legal assistance, but also operates community awareness training programs, capacity-building efforts for Women’s NGOs, and skills training and economic opportunity programs for women. From: “Gender-based Violence,” The American Refugee Committee International, www.arcrelief.org. Women for Women International have a year-long human rights education and job skills program for women in Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Nigeria, Sudan, and the Congo. Women for Women International describes how “When we enroll women in our one-year program, they learn job skills and receive business training so they can earn a living. They come to understand their rights and how to fight for those rights in their homes, their communities and their nations and become leaders. Women for Women International (WfWI) believes that lasting change can only be achieved when women have access to both knowledge and resources.” WfWI also sponsors a Men’s Leadership program in the Democratic Republic, engaging male community leaders on issues of gender equality. From: “About Us,” Women for Women International, www.womenforwomen.org.
Also, Care International, with their public campaign picturing women from around the world beside the simple phrase “I am powerful” focuses their work on women because, “equipped with the proper resources, women have the power to help whole families and entire communities escape poverty.” While Care International carries out programming in countries of relative stability as well as warring nations, many of their programs support women’s economic empowerment in conflict or post-conflict areas such as Sierra Leone, the West Bank and Gaza, and Sri Lanka. From: “About Care,” Care International, www.care.org. Grassroots NGO’s and women’s groups have also taken on human rights education and empowerment activities. For example, in Kosovo, two local NGOs that focused on the promotion of women’s rights were formed during the conflict – The Centre for the Defence of Human Rights and Freedoms documented human rights abuses and the Qiriazi Sisters established women’s rights advocacy and literacy programs. From: “Gender-Based Violence in Kosovo – A Case Study,” UN Population Fund, 2005, pages 15, http://www.unfpa.org/public.
Compiled From:
“A House with Two Rooms: Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Liberia Diaspora Project,” The Advocates for Human Rights, 2009, www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org.
“About Care,” Care International, www.care.org.
“About Us,” Women for Women International, www.womenforwomen.org.
“Comprehensive Strategy on Combating Sexual Violence in DRC: Executive Summary,” Office of the Senior Sexual Violence Advisor and Coordinator, United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 18 March 2009, www.monuc.unmissions.org.
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.
The International Criminal Court, http://www.icc-cpi.int/.
“Gender-based Violence,” The American Refugee Committee International, www.arcrelief.org.
“Gender-Based Violence in Kosovo – A Case Study,” UN Population Fund, 2005, http://www.unfpa.org/public.
“Liberia – Special Court for Sexual Violence Underway,” IRIN News, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 21 March 2008, www.irinnews.org.
“Mandate,” United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, http://unama.unmissions.org/.
“MONUSCO Mandate,” United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, www.monuc.unmissions.org.
Rodriguez, Claudia, “Sexual violence in South Kivu, Congo,” Relief Web, www.reliefweb.int.
“UNMIS Mandate,” United Nations Mission in the Sudan, www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmis/.
“Women and Armed Conflict – Law and Policy,” Stop Violence Against Women, The Advocates for Human Rights, www.stopvaw.org.