Few statistics exist on the occurrence of violence against indigenous women, despite UN recommendations to disaggregate data about indigenous people. In Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States, where such data is compiled, rates of violence against indigenous women are significantly higher than for non-indigenous women. According to the Native Women’s Association of Canada, 75% of indigenous women have experienced domestic violence in their lifetimes. The Office for Women in New South Wales, Australia, found that aboriginal women experienced domestic violence at a rate six times greater than the state average, and they were almost four times more likely to be murder victims. In the United States, Bureau of Justice statistics show that indigenous women are twice as likely to be sexually assaulted as non-indigenous women. In New Zealand, the U.S. State Department reports that though only 15% of the population in New Zealand is Maori, 43% of women using battered women’s shelter services there from 2007-2008 were Maori. Beyond these statistics, reports on indigenous communities around the world show the pervasiveness of violence against indigenous women and the many forms it can take.
Domestic Violence
Because few statistics are available, it is unknown whether domestic violence is more or less common in indigenous communities overall than in non-indigenous communities, but it is known that many indigenous women are victims of domestic violence. The statistics listed above show that among indigenous women of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the rate of domestic violence is significantly higher than for the general population. Minority Rights Group International reports that Twa women living in the Great Lakes region of Central Africa have faced increased domestic violence in recent years. In Uganda, one of the countries where Twa women live, 81% of women experience domestic violence. According to a report by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, domestic violence is also common in Pacific Island communities, where indigenous victims face a culture of silence.
For more information, see the Domestic Violence section of this website.
Sexual Assault
Indigenous women are sexually assaulted by both indigenous and non-indigenous men. Rape can be part of forced marriage or revenge in the Pacific Islands, including Fiji, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. In this region, rape is often tolerated by courts, especially if the victim marries her rapist, a formal apology is made by the perpetrator, or it is a situation of “payback” or punishment rape. From Imrana Jalal, “Harmful Practices against Women in Pacific Island Countries: Customary and Conventional Laws,” Expert Paper for the Expert Group Meeting on Good Practices in Legislation to Address Harmful Practices against Women (2009).
According to Amnesty International reports on sexual violence against indigenous women in the U.S. and Canada, in the U.S., 90% of sexual assaults of indigenous women are committed by non-indigenous men, and more than 1 in 3 Native American women will be sexually assaulted in her lifetime. During the past 20 years in Canada, an estimated 500 indigenous women have been murdered or have disappeared in circumstances that suggest violence, often sexual assault. In both countries, many of these crimes appear to be racially motivated.
Sexual assault is a constant threat for indigenous women who live in areas of militarization and armed conflict in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. During tribal conflicts in Africa, rape is commonly used as a weapon of war. From Lucy Mulenkei, “African Indigenous Women in the 21st Century,” Indigenous Affairs No.3, p. 42-45 (2000). Amnesty International reports that in Colombia, a 40-year armed conflict has disproportionately affected indigenous peoples, who traditionally live in resource-rich areas. Guerrilla, paramilitary, and military forces use violence, including sexual assault, to forcibly displace indigenous peoples from their lands. Internally displaced women face an increased risk of sexual assault and exploitation. In Bangladesh, indigenous peoples in the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been in conflict with military troops and non-indigenous settlers since 1980. Despite a peace accord in 1997, rape, displacement, and other forms of violence continue. From Ishtiaq Jamil and Pranab Kumar Panday, “The Elusive Peace Accord in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh and the Plight of the Indigenous People,” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 46:4, 464-489 (2008).
For more information, see the Sexual Assault section of this website.
Trafficking of Indigenous Women
Rights and Democracy reports that indigenous women are disproportionately impacted by human trafficking in Asia. When indigenous women are displaced from their homes, or when military forces or commercial development are stationed near their land, trafficking and forced prostitution increase. According to a study by the International Organization for Migration, trafficking of indigenous girls in Guatemala has noticeably increased since 1999. Girls are trafficked from rural areas to the city, where they are held in brothels or bars. In Colombia, women displaced by the 40-year armed conflict, many of whom are indigenous, are targeted for trafficking. In 2001, 35,000 women were trafficked out of Colombia; 55% came from village areas, where most indigenous women live. From “Human Rights Reports: Colombia,” Protection Project (2008).
For more information, see the Trafficking in Women section of this website.
Harmful Practices
In some indigenous communities, harmful practices such as witch harassment and killings, forced and early marriage, and female genital mutilation are another type of violence against indigenous women.
Witch Harassment and Killings Witch harassment and killings are one type of violence against women that is tolerated in the name of tradition. Indigenous peoples in Jharkhand, India believe that regularly eliminating witches will strengthen their society against outside threats. Those accused of witchcraft are beaten, humiliated, or killed. Despite passage of the Prevention of Witch Accusation Act, incidents have increased. From Samar Bosu Mullick, “Witch Accusations in Jharkhand, India: A Few Recent Cases,” Indigenous Affairs No.3, p. 18-23 (2000).
Witch killings have also been documented in Papua New Guinea, Vanuata, and Fiji. In the highlands of Papua New Guinea in 2008, there were more than 50 cases of violence due to witchcraft accusations. Though the victims may be male or female, those accused of witchcraft are often economically dependent older women. Young men are usually the perpetrators. Women accused of witchcraft are subjected to brutal violence, including beatings, cutting, broken bones, and rape. Victims who were murdered have been buried alive, thrown over cliffs, stoned, and beheaded. From Imrana Jalal, “Harmful Practices against Women in Pacific Island Countries: Customary and Conventional Laws,” Expert Paper for the Expert Group Meeting on Good Practices in Legislation to Address Harmful Practices against Women (2009). For more information, see the Femicide section of this website.
Forced and Early Marriage Forced and early marriage also affects indigenous women. Among the Bamiléke in Cameroon, girls aged 12-16 may be forced to marry older men. From “Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in Cameroon,” ECPAT International (2004). In the Pacific Islands, girls are commonly married when they reach puberty. If a girl is sexually assaulted, she may be forced to marry her rapist. From Imrana Jalal, “Harmful Practices against Women in Pacific Island Countries: Customary and Conventional Laws,” Expert Paper for the Expert Group Meeting on Good Practices in Legislation to Address Harmful Practices against Women (2009).
Forced and early marriage can be economically motivated, benefiting the male members of a girl’s family. Among the Masai in Kenya, tradition has been used as justification for economically-motivated forced marriage. During a drought in 2005, fathers who were struggling economically used bridal dowries as a way to compensate for lost livestock. Daughters as young as eight or nine years old were forced to marry much older men. From “Mairin Iwanka Raya: Indigenous Women Stand Against Violence,” International Indigenous Women’s Forum (2006). Due to the brideprice custom, in which a girl’s family receives money and food from her husband, girls in the Solomon Islands have been forced to marry loggers to provide financial gain for their families. When the girls become pregnant, they are often abandoned by their logger husbands. From Imrana Jalal, “Harmful Practices against Women in Pacific Island Countries: Customary and Conventional Laws,” Expert Paper for the Expert Group Meeting on Good Practices in Legislation to Address Harmful Practices against Women (2009). For more information, see the Forced and Early Marriage section of this website.
Female Genital Mutilation Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is practiced among many different peoples in Africa, including indigenous peoples such as the Gogo, Samburu, and Masai. From “Negative Cultural Practices that Affect Our Indigenous Women,” Equality Now (25 September 2003).
The World Health Organization states that there are no health benefits to FGM. FGM carries serious and sometimes fatal short- and long-term complications, including severe pain, shock, infection, hemorrhaging, bladder and urinary tract infections, infertility, childbirth complications, and death.
Compiled from: “Recommendations Specifically Pertaining to Indigenous Women and the Girl Child, adopted by the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues,” United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (2002). “Aboriginal Women’s Health,” Native Women’s Association of Canada (2004). “Women, Violence, and Safety: New South Wales,” Office for Women, NSW Premier’s Department (2007) “American Indians and Crime,” U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2004). “New Zealand Country Report 2008,” U.S. State Department (2009). Jackson, Dorothy, “Twa Women, Twa Rights in the Great Lakes Region of Africa,” Minority Rights Group International (2003). “Pacific Perspectives on the Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of Children and Youth,” United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2009). “Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response to Discrimination and Violence against Indigenous Women in Canada,” Amnesty International (2004). “Maze of Injustice,” Amnesty International (2007). Mulenkei, Lucy, “African Indigenous Women in the 21st Century,” Indigenous Affairs No.3, p. 42-45 (2000). “Leave Us in Peace: Targeting Civilians in Colombia’s Internal Armed Conflict,” Amnesty International (2008). Jamil, Ishtiaq and Panday, Pranab Kumar, “The Elusive Peace Accord in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh and the Plight of the Indigenous People,” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 46:4, 464-489 (2008). “Portrait of Asian Indigenous Women,” Rights and Democracy (2007). “Sexual Commercial Exploitation of Girls, Boys, and Adolescents in Guatemala,” International Organization for Migration (2002). “Human Rights Reports: Colombia,” Protection Project (2008). Mullick, Samar Bosu, “Witch Accusations in Jharkhand, India: A Few Recent Cases,” Indigenous Affairs No.3 (2000). Jalal, Imrana, “Harmful Practices against Women in Pacific Island Countries: Customary and Conventional Laws,” Expert Paper for the Expert Group Meeting on Good Practices in Legislation to Address Harmful Practices against Women (2009). “Mairin Iwanka Raya: Indigenous Women Stand Against Violence,” International Indigenous Women’s Forum (2006). “Negative Cultural Practices that Affect Our Indigenous Women,” Equality Now (25 September 2003). “Female Genital Mutilation,” World Health Organization (2008).