The types of violence faced by women during armed conflict – sexual violence, trafficking, domestic violence – is different from that experienced by men. Recently scholars have determined that the rape, sexual brutality, physical assaults, and economic and sexual slavery that women suffer during war are a result of the overarching gender relationships, roles and values that exist in a society before war. A United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) Expert Assessment explains:

“The extreme violence that women suffer during conflict does not arise solely out of the conditions of war, it is directly related to the violence that exists in women’s lives during peacetime.  Throughout the world, women experience violence because they are women, and often because they do not have the same rights or autonomy that men do. They are subjected to gender-based persecution, discrimination and oppression, including sexual violence and slavery.  Without political rights or authority, they often have little recourse.”  From: Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

If discrimination and violence against women is present in a society, it will only increase with the presence of armed conflict. For example, Women for Women International published the findings of their survey of “relatively well-educated men from several sectors of society” of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in which 87% of respondents agreed that “men are the heads of households and the wives must obey and submit to them,” nearly 54% of respondents agreed that “a dowry is a symbol of a husband’s full authority over his wife,” and over 40% disagreed that “there this never a time when it is okay to sexually assault a woman.” From:  “Ending Violence against Women in Eastern Congo: Preparing Men to Advocate for Women’s Rights,” Women for Women International, Winter 2007. If those surveyed by Women for Women International are representative of the broader population, then a large portion of Congolese men believe that sexual assault is permissible under the certain circumstances. It is certain that these social beliefs have fueled ongoing violence against women in the conflict in the Congo, deemed the “rape capital of the world,” where forty women a day are raped in the district of South Kivu alone. From: “UN official calls DR Congo the ‘rape capital of the world,’” BBC News, 27 April 2010; and “Sexual Violence against Women and Children in Armed Conflict,” 2008 Parliamentary Meeting at the United Nations, New York, 20-21 November 2008.

Oftentimes, gender-based violence during war is a strategy of armed groups who seek to target certain ethnic groups within a society.  Because of women’s reproductive capabilities, they are raped to “carry the enemy’s child,” to shame and destroy families, and to spread the infection of HIV. In these cases, often times pregnant women are killed or forced to miscarry.  Women symbolically carry the national or ethnic identity of a group, and attacks on women are seen as effective means to demoralize and terrorize a certain ethnic group. Once again, these motivations for gender-based violence are also derived from the values and gender roles within society. From: Addressing the Needs of Women in Armed Conflict, International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2004; and “World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance,” Review of Reports, Studies and Other Documentation for the Preparatory Committee and the World Conference, United Nations General Assembly, A/CONF.189/PC.3/5, 27 July 2001.

The question of vulnerability often arises in a discussion of violence against women – does being female make one more vulnerable during armed conflict? According to the UN Secretary General’s Report on Violence Against Women, “Vulnerability to violence is understood as a condition created by the absence or denial of rights.” From: “Ending Violence Against Women – From Words to Action,” United Nations Secretary General Report, 2006. While certain conditions that are specific to women’s lives can be considered risk factors for increased violence during armed conflict, women’s vulnerability does not originate from some inherent weakness of the female population, but rather from the denial of rights experienced by women in peacetime and during war.

Political and Economic Factors

The general upheaval of war can contribute enormously to an increase in violence against women. Protecting against, and prosecuting, crimes of violence against women, is often not a priority of governments during conflict.  Limited policing and an inadequate justice system can lead to virtual impunity for perpetrators of rape, sexual violence, trafficking and other acts of violence. Often the burden of proof is too great for victims, the lack of health care means no forensic evidence of sexual assault can be gathered in a timely manner, and legal assistance is too expensive. Also, as discussed above, general social attitudes contribute to impunity for perpetrators. A report by the UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs explains the impact of these social attitudes:

“In a world where sex crimes are too often regarded as misdemeanours during times of law and order, surely rape will not be perceived as a high crime during war, when all the rules of human interaction are turned on their heads, and heinous acts regularly earn their perpetrators commendation…The baseline is established by societies, in times of peace.” From: “Broken Bodies Broken Dreams – Violence against Women Exposed,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and Integrated Regional Information Networks, 2005.

In addition to a heightened risk of rape, an increase in the trafficking of women and girls results from the breakdown of policing, the reduction in border controls and the influx of internationals. The increased availability of weapons along with the culture of violence perpetuated within militarized societies lead to an increase in the number and severity of incidents of domestic violence and violence within communities. From: “Broken Bodies Broken Dreams – Violence against Women Exposed,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and Integrated Regional Information Networks, 2005; and Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

The physical destruction of homes, schools, utilities and transportation systems during war significantly impacts the livelihood of families and communities. Also, industrial areas and agricultural production are often targeted by armed groups.  These factors, along with the breakdown of security, lead to high levels of unemployment and poverty. Daily activities typically carried out by women to provide for basic needs can increase their risk of experiencing violence.  Collecting firewood, working in the fields, or traveling to market exposes women to the risk of violence, sexual assault or abduction. Poverty can lead women to sexual or economic exploitation while seeking to provide for the basic needs of their families and themselves. The stress and hopelessness of unemployment and poverty also increase the likelihood of domestic violence. From: Addressing the Needs of Women in Armed Conflict, International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2004; and Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

Displacement

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees reported that there were an estimated 43.3 million displaced persons worldwide in 2009, the highest number since the late 1990s. Refugees accounted for 15.2 million, but the majority of displaced persons remain within their own country. From: “2009 Global Trends – Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons,” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 15 June 2010. Unfortunately, for women displacement is both a consequence of violence during armed conflict and a risk factor.  Women usually flee because perpetrators have deliberately created an atmosphere of terror through physical force, threats, or by destroying their means of sustenance.  Refugee women suffer unique hardships. Women are vulnerable during flight, especially if they are a visible part of a targeted group. If they travel with relatives, they become dependent upon their male relatives for safety. Separated from male family members, refugee women and girls fleeing conflict are more susceptible to rape and abduction by border guards, army units, rebel armies, male refugees or local civilians.  And, adapting to a new environment is difficult, making women more vulnerable to coercion in exchange for necessary goods. From: Ward, Jeanne and Marsh, Mendy, “Sexual Violence against Women and Girls in War and Its Aftermath – Realities, Responses, and Required Resources,” A Briefing Paper for the Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Beyond, United Nations Population Fund, June 2006; and Addressing the Needs of Women in Armed Conflict, International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2004.

The threat of rape or physical abuse does not cease once refugee women and girls reach a country of asylum.  As targets for exploitation, refugee women and adolescent girls may be coerced into giving sexual favors in exchange for protection, documents or other assistance. Women also face problems with their legal status as refugees.  In many situations, ration cards, legal documents, and registration are only issued to men, so problems arise if women travel alone. Once within the relative security of a refugee camp, these women and girls are still at risk for abuse. Refugee camps that are poorly designed or overcrowded may cause an increase in violence against refugee women and girls.  In large encampments, women are rarely afforded privacy.  Unaccompanied women and girls may be forced to share living space with single men.  Traditional community members may be isolated from one another as refugees are forced to share communal living space with strangers and enemies. When communal bathrooms and washing facilities are placed at considerable distance from living quarters, women face greater risk of attack en route to these areas. These factors, coupled with un-lit camps and insufficient night patrols, place women in severe danger. From: Ward Jeanne, If Not Now, When?: Addressing Gender-Based Violence in Refugee, Internally Displaced, and Post-Conflict Settings, Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium, 2002; and Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

Evidence also supports the conclusion that residing within a refugee camp for an extended period of time increases spousal violence. Idleness, boredom, frustration, and despair can contribute to emotional strain and the breakdown of cultural, social and economic roles. There is little recourse for women who experience domestic violence in displacement camps as it is often not recognized as a crime by the government, aid workers, or the men and women themselves. From: Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

Refugee camps are also vulnerable to armed forces, especially when armies use the camps for respite and as a chance to visit their civilian families. Refugee women and children have been forced to clear landmines or join the armed forces. Also, inappropriate and male-dominated food distribution can have a devastating impact on the health of women and children. Malnutrition is the leading cause of death in refugee camps. Malnourished persons are also more susceptible to disease and less likely to recover from illnesses.  Well-meaning but misinformed aid workers may supply food that requires extensive preparation or is not found within a refugee population’s traditional diet. Cultural practices that require men be fed first means that women and children are the first to suffer from hunger when food is scarce. Seventy percent of the world’s food producers are women; nevertheless, aid workers systematically fail to distribute food to women, even though they are primarily responsible for preparing food and feeding their families. Often, food that is distributed through male networks is sold on the black market or transferred to resistance groups. Male aid distributors have also required women perform sexual favors in exchange for food. Women face similar legal problems when trying to re-establish themselves and re-claim abandoned property in their home countries after a conflict has ended. From: Ward Jeanne, If Not Now, When?: Addressing Gender-Based Violence in Refugee, Internally Displaced, and Post-Conflict Settings, Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium, 2002; and Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

Detention During War and Armed Conflict

While in detention, women experience several unique problems.  Most refugee and detention camps are designed with men in mind, and they do not have adequate facilities or supplies for women. They may lack proper sanitation, sanitary supplies, reproductive healthcare facilities, space for children, and provisions for women’s privacy.  Women may have less access to fresh air than men because facilities lack separate yards for women, or there may not be enough female guards. Additionally, female detention centers are few in number, so women are often transferred among a few centers, and are subject to increased vulnerability while in transit. Women may also be prohibited from exercising their religious beliefs or dressing in a way that conforms to their religious beliefs while in detention. From: Addressing the Needs of Women in Armed Conflict, International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2004; and “Ending Violence Against Women – From Words to Action,” United Nations Secretary General Report, 2006.

Women may experience sexual violence in detention as part of an initial strip search, interrogation, torture, or as a part of their daily lives.  Facilities are often incapable of providing needed protection and services to women seeking refugee status. Translation services are often not accessible to women detainees. The detention centers may provide inadequate medical care, be unable to address women’s health needs, or provide inedible food. Family members who arrive together are routinely separated and placed in different facilities. They may encounter threats to harm their children if they attempt to resist rape, file a complaint, or inform anyone else. Because many cultures view women as reproducers, many torture techniques target women’s role as reproducers and mothers, resulting in sexual mutilation or sterilization.  From: Addressing the Needs of Women in Armed Conflict, International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2004; and “Ending Violence Against Women – From Words to Action,” United Nations Secretary General Report, 2006.

In many asylum countries, all individuals who enter illegally or unauthorized are subject to potential detention regardless of age, sex or their application for refugee status. For victims of torture and persecution, detention can be a re-traumatizing experience leading to extreme psychological stress. The levels of anxiety, depression, and PSTD observed in detainees are greater than that of refugees living in camps or asylum seekers living in the community. Rather than being detained in separate facilities, women and girls seeking asylum are often imprisoned with convicted criminals. Where individuals are housed in detention camps created specifically for persons seeking refugee status, these closed facilities are usually surrounded by barbed wire. Despite their purpose, these detention facilities often have the appearance and reality of being prisons. Studies have found that such surroundings often encourage inhumane actions. From: Ward Jeanne, If Not Now, When?: Addressing Gender-Based Violence in Refugee, Internally Displaced, and Post-Conflict Settings, Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium, 2002; and Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

Compiled from:

“2009 Global Trends – Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons,” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 15 June 2010.

Addressing the Needs of Women in Armed Conflict, International Committee of the Red Cross, March 2004.

“Broken Bodies Broken Dreams – Violence against Women Exposed,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and Integrated Regional Information Networks, 2005.

“Ending Violence Against Women – From Words to Action,” United Nations Secretary General Report, 2006.

“Ending Violence against Women in Eastern Congo: Preparing Men to Advocate for Women’s Rights,” Women for Women International, Winter 2007.

Rehn, Elisabeth and Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, “Women, War and Peace – The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building,” United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2002.

“Sexual Violence against Women and Children in Armed Conflict,” 2008 Parliamentary Meeting at the United Nations, New York, 20-21 November 2008.

Ward Jeanne, If Not Now, When?: Addressing Gender-Based Violence in Refugee, Internally Displaced, and Post-Conflict Settings, Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium, 2002.

Ward, Jeanne and Marsh, Mendy, “Sexual Violence against Women and Girls in War and Its Aftermath – Realities, Responses, and Required Resources,” A Briefing Paper for the Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Beyond, United Nations Population Fund, June 2006.

“UN official calls DR Congo the ‘rape capital of the world,’” BBC News, 27 April 2010.

“World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance,” Review of Reports, Studies and Other Documentation for the Preparatory Committee and the World Conference, United Nations General Assembly, A/CONF.189/PC.3/5, 27 July 2001.