In any of these forms of sexual assault, minority and marginalized women are often the most vulnerable—and generally also those who face the greatest obstacles to gaining protection and necessary services. Factors such as race, class, ethnicity and disability may make women particularly vulnerable to sexual assault. As the former Special Rapporteur has explained, minority women may be seen "as sexually available and undeserving of protection by the women." Women may also be labeled unworthy of protection because of their poverty or low social status.

Sex workers, in particular, are at a particularly high risk of sexual violence, especially in countries in which sex work is illegal. Women engaged in sex work have little to no protection from the legal system. They may be reluctant to report assaults, either because sex work is illegal, or because they will not be believed. In some legal systems, a conviction for rape requires proof of virginity. In India, for example, doctors "may undertake a test to determine the victim-survivor's virginity based on the number of fingers that can be inserted into the woman's vagina." From 1997 Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Alternative Approaches and Ways and Means Within the United Nations System for Improving the Effective Enjoyment of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (E/CN.4/1997/47), 12 February 1997. "This link between virginity and the prosecution for rape ensure that certain categories of women, such as prostitutes, are seen as being outside the boundaries of what would constitute rape; as 'unrapable.'"

Finally, minority women also often face significant obstacles in obtaining necessary medical care or accessing the legal system. As the former Special Rapporteur has explained, factors such as race, language barriers, disability, class and ethnicity "often exacerbate the institutional failure with regard to the State response to rape and sexual violence."

From 1997 Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Alternative Approaches and Ways and Means Within the United Nations System for Improving the Effective Enjoyment of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (E/CN.4/1997/47), 12 February 1997.

According to a policy statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics, adolescents may be particularly vulnerable to sexual assault. In adolescent populations, studies indicate two-thirds to three-quarters of all sexual assaults are perpetrated by an acquaintance or a relative; adolescent victims of sexual assault are more likely to have used alcohol and less likely to have been physically injured; female victims are less likely to seek medical care after an assault.

Adults and adolescents with disabilities are especially vulnerable to sexual violence, and face significant additional obstacles in gaining protection from the criminal justice system or assistance from crisis centers and advocacy organizations. The American Academy of Pediatrics reports that "[a]dolescents with developmental disabilities, especially those in the mildly retarded ranger, are at particular risk for acquaintance and date rape." From American Academy of Pediatrics, 107 Care of the Adolescent Sexual Assault Victim 1476-79 (2001). Another study found that "68 percent to 83 percent of women with developmental disabilities will be sexually assaulted in their lifetime, which represents a 50 percent higher rate than the rest of the population." From Cheryl Guidry Tyiska, Working with Victims of Crime with Disabilities, National Organization for Victim Assistance (19 April 2001). Elderly women, "who often have little power and may be dependent on others for care, can be extremely vulnerable to sexual mistreatment" and may be abused by caregivers, nurses, and family. From Kathleen Quinn, Older Women: Hidden Sexual Abuse Victims, Illinois Department on Aging.

For a collection of research and reports on sexual assault and vulnerable populations, click here.